Therapeutic Intervention And Women Experiencing Domestic Violence Social Work Essay

Therapeutic Intervention And Women Experiencing Domestic Violence Social Work Essay There have been on-going public and professional concerns about the issue of domestic violence in the world. This interest has resulted in a growing body of research evidence which examine the prevalence and correlates of this type of violence (Archer, 2002; Fagan Browne, 1994; Johnson Ferraro, 2000). The most common form of violence against women is domestic violence, or the violence against women in families. Research consistently demonstrates that a woman is more likely to be injured, raped or killed by a current or former partner than by any other persons. Men may kick, bite, slap, punch or try to strangle their wives or partners; they may burn them or throw acid on their faces; they may beat or rape them, with either their body parts or sharp objects and they may use deadly weapons to stab or shoot them. At times, women are seriously injured, and in some cases they are killed or die, as a result of their injuries (United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1996). The assaults are intended to injure womens psychological health and bodies, which usually include humiliation and physical violence. Just like torture, the assaults are unpredictable and bear little relation to womens own behaviour. Moreover, the assaults may continue for weeks, and even years. Some women may believe that they deserve the beatings because of some wrong actions on their parts, while others refrain from speaking about the abuse because they fear that their partner will further harm them in reprisal for revealing the family secrets or they may simply be ashamed of their situation (United Nations Economic and Social Council, Report of the Special Reporters on violence against women, E/CN.4/1996/53, February 1996). Physical and sexual violence against women is an enormous problem throughout the world. The perpetrators are typically males close to women, such as their intimate partners and family members. Violence puts women at risk for both short- and long-term sequel which involves their physical, psychological, and social well-being. The prevalence of violence involving women is alarming and it constitutes a serious health problem. No woman is safe from domestic violence, no matter what country or culture she lives in. According to the latest UN report, one in three women is raped, beaten, or abused during her lifetime. The occasion of todays world Eliminate Violence against Womens Day focuses on Iran, where abuse largely goes unreported and officially at least unrecognized. Some researchers have argued that violence is equally a problem for both sexes (Gelles, 1974; Straus, Gelles and Steinmetz, 1980; both cited in Dwyer, 1996). However, as Bograd (1988) points out, this argument ignores the disproportionate rate of male violence against women and that most documented female violence is committed in self-defence. Moreover, it also ignores the structural supports for male violence against women. There is abundant evidence which suggests that violence, against women by their husbands or partners, is a historical and current norm (i.e. Dobash and Dobash, 1988; Geller, 1992; Gordon, 1998). Some of the criticisms of cognitive behavioural therapies are that they tend to ignore social and political factors which affect clients (Enns, 1997). People who are homeless, battered, or poor may not have the financial resources or social support to use some cognitive and behavioural methods. Cognitive-behaviour therapy views that behaviour is primarily determined by what that person thinks. Cognitive-behaviour therapy works on the premise that thoughts of low self-worth are incorrect and due to faulty learning. In addition, the aim of therapy is to get rid of the faulty concepts which influence negative thinking. Furthermore, cognitive behavioural therapies may not attend to clients cultural assumptions about rationality which are rather implicit in such therapies. To make cognitive and behavioural therapies more compatible with the feminist therapy, Worell and Remer (2003) suggested changing labels that stress the pathology of people, focusing on feeling, and integrating ideas about gender-role socialization, rather than using negative or pathological labels such as distortion, irrationality, or faulty thinking. Worell and Remer (2003) suggest that clients explore ideas, based on the gender-role generalizations which appear to be distorted or irrational. For example, rather than labelling the thought that womens place is in the home as irrational, the therapist should explore the actual rewards and punishments for living out this stereotyped belief. By focusing on anger, particularly angry ones which arise as a result of gender-role limitations or discrimination, women can be helped to feel independent and gain control over their lives. Therefore, helping women with their social-role issues, gender-role and power analysis can be helpful in exp loring ways of dealing with societal pressures which interfere with womens development. This is supported by Wyche (2001) who believes that cognitive and behaviour therapies are particularly relevant for women of colour because they focus on the present, providing clients with methods to use in handling the current problems. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Violence by intimate partners has been recognized throughout the world as a significant health problem. For instance, the World Health Organization (WHO) focuses on violence against women as a priority health issue. Violence by intimate partners refers to any behaviour within an intimate partnership which causes physical, psychological, or sexual harm to those in the relationship. Violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women (Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, 1993). According to this Declaration fear is the biggest outcome of violence against women. Fear from violence is a big obstacle of womens independence and results in women to continue seeking the mens support, and in many instances this support results in the vulnerability and dependency of women, and is the main obstacle in the empowerment of womens potentials, which can bring about the development of their capacities and to use their energy in the improvement of society. Violence and abuse across the world are a common phenomenon and are not specific to a particular society, culture or mentality. Women in any given country and society are in one way or another subjected to violence in the private (home) environment or public (social) environment. In view of the irreversible consequences of violence for both the human, social and family structure of society, and for women themselves. This issue must become extra sensitive in the world. In fact, gender-based violence against women is the violation of their human rights and fundamental freedoms, the denial of their spiritual and physical integrity and an insult to their dignity. Violence against women is an obstacle of access to equal objectives, development and peace. The term violence against women is associated to any violent act that is gender-based that results in physical, mental and sexual hurt and suffering. The main reason for the separation of men and women is mental abuse. Mental abuse is an abusive behaviour which hurts and damages the womans honour, dignity and self-confidence. This type of abuse results the loss of perception, loss of self-confidence, various types of depression, womans failure in managing the family, greed at the work environment, the reconstruction of violent behaviour in children, womans dysfunction in the family, turning to sedatives, alcohol, drugs, fortune-telling (Mehrangiz Kar 2000). Violence against women in Iran takes place in a number of ways: 1 Honour killing; 2 Self-immolation; 3 Domestic violence; 4 Prostitution; 5 Human trafficking, women and children in particular. Violence reduces the self-confidence of women in the family. Women, who are abused, usually become depressed, secluded, and withdrawn people. Depression is also one of the most fundamental psychological problems in women who are in domestic violence. (Enayat, Halimeh,2006). Standards for counselling practice was developed in response to reports from women who were dissatisfied with the counselling they received after experiencing domestic violence, and concerns raised by workers in womens domestic violence services (Inner South Domestic Violence Service in Melbourne). According to the Welfare Organization of Iran (2006), the rate of mental illness among women victimized by domestic violence is significantly higher than among other women having hospital contact. It was noted that while an established network existed for domestic violence crisis and support services were designed specifically to meet the needs of women, counselling services tended to be generalized, with only a few practitioners specializing in the area. Furthermore, there has been no study to show counsellors which treatment for the mental health treatment of women who experienced domestic violence is better than the others (WBO, 2006). Family laws in Iran, create inequality between men and women, and these laws do not have the capacity to protect women who live with violent men, and violence has turned into a power tool for men. As the country progresses into an industrial nation, more academically qualified professionals are in great demand in Iran. Women who have experienced domestic violence are subjected to considerable amount of problems concerning mental health related to domestic violence. In a study by A. A. Noorbala, conducted at the Tehran University of Medical Sciences, the prevalence of mental disorders was shown to be 21.3% in the rural areas, and this was 20.9% in the urban areas. According to an old Iranian saying, Women should sacrifice themselves and tolerate. This shows that many women, if not most women, are involved in domestic violence. It happens in private life and a legal complaint can destroy the life of a woman. In other words, parts of the population have the perception that abuse is done in order to keep with the traditions of the society and out of love. Women, who are victims of domestic violence, perceived that their husbands jealous reactions which turn into violence are a sign of their love and attention to them. In a very traditional and religious setting in which many [in Iran] live, their understanding of religion and the interpretation given to them throughout the centuries is that a man can beat his wife. They believe that it is a religious command and the commentators, who have portrayed Islam in this light as a violent religion, have also contributed to the growth of this kind of culture. The police and judicial system are of little help. If a battered woman calls the police, it is unlikely that they will intervene. Ironically, the traditional attitude towards marital conflict in Iran inclines people to mediate between the couple. In many cases, the woman is usually sent back to her violent home. In the Iranian judicial system, there has been no law established to prevent domestic violence. On the contrary, there are many indicators which encourage violence against women in families in the Iranian Islamic penal code. Some authors estimate that the number of intimate relationships with violent husbands is about 20 to 30 percent (Stark Flitcraft, 1988; Straus Gelles, 1986). Broken bones, miscarriages, broken families, death, and some mental health disorders are some of the consequences of battering in intimate relationships. Each year, over one million women seek medical care due to battering (Nadelson Sauzier, 1989). Victims also experience nightmares and somatic consequences, while children who witness abuse may be symptomatic, displaying a high number of somatic, psychological and behavioural problems (Nadelson Sauzier, 1989). In addition to psychological scarring for victims, children, and batterers, there are broader societal repercussions of domestic violence. Williams-White (1989) state that the structural, cultural, and social characteristics of our society continue to perpetuate the victimization of women at all levels. In a way, violence within familial relationships reflects and helps maintain violence and oppression it widely in culture. Jennings (1 987:195) explains this by stating that violent husbands not only contribute to maintaining the level of violence in society, they also reflect a direct manifestation of socially learned sex-role behaviours. Moreover, the prevalence of battering has crossed race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (Hotaling Sugarman, 1986). Maltreatment of violence can lead to more violence (Walker, 1984). In systems which do not change, future generations may continue to resort to violence to solve problems. In addition, in many of those systems, violence may become more severe with time. For this reason, it is therefore necessary to work on treating the consequences of violence. However, to date, funding for mental health interventions is still limited, and it often only supports short-term treatment which will not adequately address the long-term symptoms. In view of the special treatment for the mental health of women, counseling centres and support houses for women can reduce the mental health problem of abused women and also reduce the domestic violence statistics. At the Welfare Organizations Counselling Centres in Iran, women who are victimized by domestic violence are treated by social workers and counsellors utilizing the cognitive behaviour therapy. Based on the above discussion, this study also analyzed the comparison of the treatments given to women who have experienced domestic violence, using four different therapies, namely combination therapy (cognitive behaviour therapy and feminist therapy) with cognitive behaviour therapy, feminist therapy and social work skills. Violence can shatter a womans life in many ways. Being a victim of violence is widely recognized as a cause for mental health problems, including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, and panic attacks. Being abused also plays a major role in developing or worsening substance abuse problems. For many women who are affected by violence, their first abuse usually occurred in their childhood or adolescence. Victimized women as childrens mothers frequently end up losing custody of their own children due to allegations of abuse or neglect, and over 50% of child abuse and neglect cases involve parental alcohol and drug abuse. In addition to institutionalized violence against women in Iran, the majority of the women and young girls are facing domestic violence at home at the time when they are still living with their parents. In most cases, it is the father and the other elder male members in the family are among those who first commit the aggression against the women and young girls. According to the latest statistics, two out of every three Iranian women have experienced discrimination and domestic violence from the father or the other male members of their family. For the vast majority of the Iranian women, married life marks the beginning of horror, pain, and humiliation, i.e. being the victim of their husbands and sometimes the other family members. Moreover, eighty one out of 100 married women have experienced domestic violence in the first year of their marriage (Mehrangiz Kar 2000). Even women with outstanding jobs and prestigious social standings are subject to this violation. In most of the cases , this abuse leaves permanent physical and psychological damages for the rest of their lives. Ironically, without saying even a word and with much pain and yet no support, crimes against women have gone unnoticed. Ninety out of 100 women suffer from a severe case of depression, from which they ultimately commit suicide and 71% of those women experience nervous breakdowns. (Mehrangiz Kar 2000). Their methods of suicide include setting themselves ablaze. For them, this is the only way of escaping from segregation and humiliation. For instance in Ilam (a city in Iran), 15 girls set themselves ablaze each month, fighting against oppression or depression (Welfare Organization of Iran, 2005). Looking at how serious this problem has become, it is therefore the responsibility of everyone to fight the oppression against women. Female victims need to believe that they should not be blamed on whatever happens to them. An active participation in the Welfare Organization of Iran to defend the wo mens rights and opposition to the Iranian Islamic fundamentalism is the least one can do to help end the pain and suffering of the victims of violence in both private and public spheres. Violence against women, in human and brutal punishments, such as stoning and complete elimination of the women from the political and social arenas represent some aspects of the modus operandi of fundamentalists leading to institutionalized violence. This also means that the struggle for equality, safety and security cannot be separated from the fight against fundamentalism in Iran. This study made use of the theoretical framework, combining the cognitive-behaviour theory and feminist theory for the mental health of the women who have been victimized by domestic violence. The present study could provide knowledge on the different types of mental health treatments adopted by counsellors at various counselling centres throughout the country. This research also examined the quality of the treatment by combining two therapies (cognitive-behaviour therapy and feminist therapy). Armed with this knowledge, the leaders of the Welfare Organizations, the society, families and counsellors can benefit from the consequences of change in the womens mental health. The suggested theoretical framework would provide a better understanding of the womens mental health and their performance in the society. In summery, battered and abused women need a wide range of responses, flexible services, and supportive policies to enhance their safety and self-sufficiency and to restore their self-esteem and welfare. These might include mental and physical health evaluation and referral; relocation services; confidential advocacy, shelter, and other domestic violence support services; educational and vocational training; legal representation concerning divorce, custody and protective orders; evaluation of immigration status and ethnic or cultural issues; and the effective enforcement of criminal laws and court orders to help free them from their partners control and to keep them and their children safe. We know that women who have suffered abuse are more likely to suffer posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and somatization than those who have never experienced abuse; the more extensive the abuse, the greater the risk of mental health disorder. Womens mental health treatment is an important area to consider for research because (1) girls and women as a group are exposed to more traumatic stressors than boys and men; (2) the mental health of women may be severely affected, resulting not only in immediate psychological symptoms, but also lifetime risk for self-destructive or suicidal behaviour, anxiety and panic attacks, eating disorders, substance abuse, somatization disorder, and sexual adjustment disorders; and (3) psychologists are not regularly trained to work specifically with trauma survivors, which can reduce the effectiveness of the treatment survivors receive. Currently there are 22 crisis intervention centres (womens crisis intervention centre) across the country (Iran), and women can stay in these centres between 6 to 8 months. As violence causes psychological pressures and uncontrolled stresses on and ultimately depression in women generally, this study was intended to find a better and useful treatment in the attempt to improve the treatment for the mental health of the women who have become the victims of domestic violence. The present study would also provide further knowledge and understanding on the three different types of the treatments used, namely the Cognitive-behaviour therapy (CBT), Feminist therapy and the combination of the two treatments. The results of this study would therefore contribute the theoretical development and practice in counselling. 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms 1.6.1 Domestic violence Domestic violence is a pattern of coercive behaviour, which includes physical, sexual, economic, emotional and/or psychological abuse, exerted by an intimate partner over another with the goal of establishing and maintaining power and control. 1.6.2 Mental health a state of mind characterized by emotional well-being, relative freedom from anxiety and disabling symptoms, and a capacity to establish constructive relationships and cope with the ordinary demands and stresses of life. Mental Health is the balance between all aspects of life social, physical, spiritual and emotional. It impacts on how we manage our surroundings and make choices in our lives clearly it is an integral part of our overall health. In this study, mental health refers to the score which the client gets from the SCL-90-R test. 1.6.3 Cognitive behaviour Therapy (CBT) A set of principles and procedures that assume that cognitive processes affect behaviour and conversely that behaviour affects cognitive processes. It emphasizes a here-and-now process without emphasizing causation. (D.Meichenbaum) .A treatment approach that helps clients examines and changes the relationship consequences, thoughts, feelings, behaviours and resultant consequences. It incorporates a number of diverse intervention (for example, cognitive restructuring procedures, problem solving, coping skills interventions, stress inoculation training, and self instructional training. 1.6.4 Feminist Therapy A philosophical and practical approach with certain assumptions; for example, strategies are needed, and therapists must be aware of personal, gender-biased value system in relation to appropriate behaviour. Feminist therapists promote se4lf-awareness, self-affirmation, and personal integration, outcomes that may conflict with the societal norms that were the original source of dysfunctional behaviour patterns of women.

On Trying To Understand The Universe and Life :: Biology Essays Research Papers

On Trying To Understand The Universe and Life I sat there in awe. I was in awe at the man's genius. I was in awe of his life. It could be described by no less than miraculous. I was especially shocked at the way the narrator of the movie, A Brief History of Time, related the discovery of his illness. He explained, "The doctors told him that he had about two and a half years to live and only his heart, his lungs, and his brain would eventually remain functional while everything else in his body would turn into a cabbage"(1) The words echoed through my mind, "Only his heart, his lungs, and his brain...". It seemed a terrifying condition to befall a youth in his early twenties. But amazingly, as the story went on, I soon found out that for him, the beginning of his illness marked a turning point from which his life truly begun. And I was at awe at God. Simply at awe. His name is Stephen Hawking. He is considered to be one of the greatest minds of Science. He was diagnosed with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, ALS, in 1962. He is still alive. He describes his philosophy in life prior to his diagnose in these terms, "My attitude was that nothing was worth an effort"(2) In the movie about his book, A Brief History of Time, it is explained how this philosophy was evident in his scholastic work where, in spite of his genius, he merely maintained an average standing as a student. Besides his diagnosed condition, the movie also points to another factor which reshaped his philosophy and outlook on life. He found love in the heart of a woman, Jane Wilde, who testified, "Without my faith in God, I wouldn't have been able to live in this situation(her husband's condition); I would not have been able to marry Stephen in the first place because I wouldn't have had the optimism to carry me through and I wouldn't have been able to carry on with it"(3) With these two events, things for stephen began to matter and he began to find meaning in putting forth the effort. His accomplishments, exemplified in a Brief History of Time, certainly testify to that. As the story unravels, he not only lived past two and a half years, he lived. He wrote, he studied, he taught, he questioned as his condition progressed; and still he lives.

Investigatory Project “ Kaymito Leaves Decoction as Antiseptic Mouthwash ” Essay

Introduction 1.1 Problem Statement Fractures are prevalent in natural and synthetic structural media, even in the best engineered materials. We find fractures in bedrock, in sandstone aquifers and oil reservoirs, in clay layers and even in unconsolidated materials (Figures 1.1 to 1.4). Fractures are also common in concrete, used either as a structural material or as a liner for storage tanks (Figure 1.5). Clay liners used in landfills, sludge and brine disposal pits or for underground storage tanks can fracture, releasing their liquid contents to the subsurface (Figure 1.6). Even â€Å"flexible† materials such as asphalt fracture with time (Figure 1.7). The fact that fractures are inevitable has led to spending billions of research dollars to construct â€Å"safe† long-term (10,000 years or more) storage for high-level nuclear waste (Savage, 1995; IAEA, 1995), both to determine which construction techniques are least likely to result in failure and what are the implications of a failure, in terms of release to the environment and potential contamination of ground water sources or exposure of humans to high levels of radioactivity. Why do materials fail? In most cases, the material is flawed from its genesis. In crystalline materials, it may be the inclusion of one different atom or molecule in the structure of the growing crystal, or simply the juncture of two crystal planes. In depositional materials, different grain types and sizes may be laid down, resulting in layering which then becomes the initiation plane for the fracture. Most materials fail because of mechanical stresses, for example the weight of the overburden, or heaving (Atkinson, 1989; Heard et al., 1972). Some mechanical stresses are applied constantly2 until the material fails, others are delivered in a sudden event. Other causes of failure are thermal stresses, drying and wetting cycles and chemical dissolution. After a material fractures, the two faces of the fracture may be subject to additional stresses which either close or open the fracture, or may subject it to shear. Other materials may temporarily or permanently deposit in the fracture, partially or totally blocking it for subsequent fluid flow. The fracture may be almost shut for millions of years, but if the material becomes exposed to the surface or near surface environment, the resulting loss of overburden or weathering may allow the fractures to open. In some cases, we are actually interested in introducing fractures in the subsurface, via hydraulic (Warpinski, 1991) or pneumatic fracturing (Schuring et al., 1995), or more powerful means, to increase fluid flow in oil reservoirs or at contaminated sites. Our particular focus in this study is the role that fractures play in the movement of contaminants in the subsurface. Water supply from fractured bedrock aquifers is common in the United States (Mutch and Scott, 1994). With increasing frequency contaminated fractured aquifers are detected (NRC, 1990). In many cases, the source of the contamination is a Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (NAPL) which is either in pools or as residual ganglia in the fractures of the porous matrix. Dissolution of the NAPL may occur over several decades, resulting in a growing plume of dissolved contaminants which is transported through the fractured aquifer due to natural or imposed hydraulic gradients. Fractures in aquitards may allow the seepage of contaminants, either dissolved or in their own phase, into water sources. Fluid flow in the fractured porous media is of significance not only in the context of contaminant transport, but also in the production of oil from reservoirs, the generation of steam for power from geothermal reservoirs, and the prediction of structural integrity or failure of large geotechnical structures, such as dams or foundations. Thus, the results of this study have a wide range of applications. The conceptual model of a typical contaminant spill into porous media has been put forward by Abriola (1989), Mercer and Cohen (1990), Kueper and McWhorter (1991) and Parker et al. (1994). In some cases, the contaminant is dissolved in water and thus3 travels in a fractured aquifer or aquitard as a solute. Fractures provide a fast channel for widely distributing the contaminant throughout the aquifer and also result in contaminant transport in somewhat unpredictable directions, depending on the fracture planes that are intersected (Hsieh et al., 1985). More typically a contaminant enters the subsurface as a liquid phase separate from the gaseous or aqueous phases present (Figure 1.8). The NAPL may be leaking from a damaged or decaying storage vessel (e.g. in a gasoline station or a refinery) or a disposal pond, or may be spilt during transport and use in a manufacturing process (e.g. during degreasing of metal parts, in the electronics industry to clean semiconductors, or in an airfield for cleaning jet engines). The NAPL travels first through the unsaturated zone, under three-phase flow conditions, displacing air and water. The variations in matrix permeability, due to the heterogeneity of the porous medium, result in additional deviations from vertical flow. If the NAPL encounters layers of slightly less permeable materials (e.g. silt or clay lenses, or even tightly packed sand), or materials with smaller pores and thus a higher capillary entry pressure (e.g. NAPL entering a tight, water-filled porous medium), it will tend to flow mostly in the horizontal direction until it encounters a path of less resistance, either more permeable or with larger pores. Microfractures in the matrix are also important in allowing the NAPL to flow through these lowpermeability lenses. When the NAPL reaches the capillary fringe, two scenarios may arise. First, if the NAPL is less dense than water (LNAPL, e.g. gasoline, most hydrocarbons), then buoyancy forces will allow it to â€Å"float† on top of the water table. The NAPL first forms a small mound, which quickly spreads horizontally over the water table (Figure 1.9). When the water table rises due to recharge of the aquifer, it displaces the NAPL pool upward, but by that time the saturation of NAPL may be so low that it becomes disconnected. Disconnected NAPL will usually not flow under two-phase (water and NAPL) conditions. Connected NAPL will move up and down with the movements of the water table, being smeared until becomes disconnected. If the water table goes above the disconnected NAPL, it will begin to slowly dissolve. NAPL in the unsaturated zone will4 slowly volatilize. The rates of dissolution and volatilization are controlled by the flow of water or air, respectively (Powers et al., 1991; Miller et al., 1990; Wilkins et al., 1995; Gierke et al, 1990). A plume of dissolved NAPL will form in the ground water, as well as a plume of volatilized NAPL in the unsaturated zone. If the NAPL is denser than water (DNAPL, e.g. chlorinated organic solvents, polychlorinated biphenyls, tars and creosotes), then once it reaches the water table it begins to form a mound and spread horizontally until either there is enough mass to overcome the capillary entry pressure (DNAPL into a water saturated matrix) or it finds a path of less resistance into the water-saturated matrix, either a fracture or a more porous/permeable region. Once in the saturated zone, the DNAPL travels downward until either it reaches a low enough saturation to become disconnected (forming drops or â€Å"ganglia†) and immobile, or it finds a low-permeability layer. If the layer does not extend very far, the DNAPL will flow horizontally around it. In many cases, the DNAPL reaches bedrock (Figure 1.10). The rock usually contains fractures into which the DNAPL flows readily, displacing water. The capillary entry pressure into most fractures is quite low, on the order of a few centimeters of DNAPL head (Kueper and McWhorter, 1991). Flow into the fractures continues until either the fracture becomes highly DNAPL saturated, or the fracture is filled or closed below, or the DNAPL spreads thin enough to become disconnected. The DNAPL may flow into horizontal fractures within the fracture network. In terms of remediation strategies, DNAPLs in fractured bedrock are probably one of the most intractable problems (National Research Council, 1994). They are a continuous source of dissolved contaminants for years or decades, making any pumping or active bioremediation alternative a very long term and costly proposition. Excavation down to the fractured bedrock is very expensive in most cases, and removal of the contaminated bedrock even more so. Potential remediation alternatives for consideration, include dewatering the contaminated zone via high-rate pumping and then applying Soil Vapor Extraction to remove volatile DNAPLs, or applying steam to mobilize and volatilize the DNAPL towards a collection well. An additional option is to use5 surfactants, either to increase the dissolution of DNAPL or to reduce its interfacial tension and thus remobilize it (Abdul et al., 1992). An issue with remobilizing via surfactants is the potential to drive the DNAPLs further down in the aquifer or bedrock, complicating the removal. If an effective remediation scheme is to be engineered, such as Soil Vapor Extraction, steam injection or surfactant-enhanced dissolution or mobilization, we need to understand how DNAPLs flow through fractures. Flow may be either as a solute in the aqueous phase, as two separate phases (DNAPL-water) or as three phases (DNAPL, water and gas, either air or steam). Another complication in any remediation scheme, not addressed in this study, is how to characterize the fracture network. Which are the fractures that carry most of the flow? What is their aperture and direction? What is the density of fracturing in a particular medium? Are the fractures connected to other fractures, probably in other planes? How does one sample enough of the subsurface to generate a good idea of the complexity involved? Some techniques are beginning to emerge to determine some of the most important parameters. For example, pumping and tracer tests (McKay et al., 1993; Hsieh et al., 1983) may provide enough information to determine the mean mechanical and hydraulic aperture of a fracture, as well as its main orientation. Geophysical techniques like seismic imaging, ground-penetrating radar and electrical conductivity tests are being improved to assist in the determination of fracture zones (National Research Council, 1996). However, there is room for significant improvement in our current ability to characterize fractures in the subsurface. Even if we come to understand how single and multiphase flow occurs in a fracture, and the interactions between the fracture and the porous matrix surrounding it, how do we describe all these phenomena in a modeling framework? Clearly, we cannot describe every fracture in a model that may consider scales of tens, hundreds or thousands of meters in one or more directions. One approach is to consider the medium as an â€Å"equivalent continuum† (Long, 1985), where the small-scale properties are somehow averaged in the macroscopic scale. Probably the best solution for averaging properties is to use a stochastic description of properties such as permeability (or6 hydraulic conductivity) including the effect of fractures on overall permeability, diffusivity, sorption capacity, grain size, wettability, etc. Another approach, first developed in the petroleum industry, is to consider a â€Å"dual porosity/dual permeability† medium (Bai et al., 1993; Zimmerman et al., 1993; Johns and Roberts, 1991; Warren and Root, 1963), referring to the porosity and permeability of the matrix and the fracture. Diffusive or capillary forces drive the contaminants, or the oil and its components, into or out of the matrix, and most advective flow occurs in the fractures. None of these models has yet been validated through controlled experiments. 1.2 Research Objectives The objectives of this research are:  · To characterize the fracture aperture distribution of several fractured porous media at high resolution;  · To study the transport of a contaminant dissolved in water through fractured media, via experimental observation;  · To study the physical processes involved in two- and three-phase displacements at the pore scale;  · To observe two- and three-phase displacements in real fractured porous media;  · To bring the experimental observations into a modeling framework for predictive purposes. 1.3 Approach7 To understand single and multiphase flow and transport processes in fractures, I first decided to characterize at a high level of resolution the fracture aperture distribution of a number of fractured rock cores using CAT-scanning. With this information, I determined the geometry and permeability of the fractures, which I then use to construct a numerical flow model. I also use this information to test the validity of predictive models that are based on the assumed statistics of the aperture distribution. For example, stochastic models (Gelhar, 1986) use the geometric mean of the aperture distribution to predict the transmissivity of a fracture, and show that the aperture variance and correlation length can be used to predict the dispersivity of a solute through a fracture. These models have not been, to my knowledge, been tested experimentally prior to this study. I compare these theoretical predictions of fracture transmissivity and dispersivity of a contaminant, with experimental results, both from the interpretation of the breakthrough curve of a non-sorbing tracer and from CAT-scans of the tracer movement through the fractured cores. To study multiphase displacements at the pore scale, we use a physical â€Å"micromodel†, which is a simile of a real pore space in two dimensions, etched onto a silicon substrate. The advantage of having a realistic pore space, which for the first time has the correct pore body and pore throat dimensions in a micromodel, is that we can observe multiphase displacements under realistic conditions in terms of the balance between capillary and viscous forces. I conduct two- and three-phase displacements to observe the role that water and NAPL layers play in the mobilization of the various phases. The micromodels are also used to study the possible combinations of double displacements, where one phase displaces another which displaces a third phase. The pore scale observations have been captured by Fenwick and Blunt (1996) in a threedimensional, three-phase network model which considers flow in layers and allows for double displacements. This network model then can produce three-phase relative permeabilities as a function of phase saturation(s) and the displacement path (drainage, imbibition or a series of drainage and imbibition steps).8 In addition, I use the fracture aperture information to construct capillary pressuresaturation curves for two phase (Pruess and Tsang, 1990) and three phases (Parker and Lenhard, 1987), as well as three-phase relative permeabilities (Parker and Lenhard, 1990). The fracture aperture distribution is also an input to a fracture network model which I use to study two-phase displacements (drainage and imbibition) under the assumption of capillary-dominated flow. To observe two- and three-phase displacements at a larger scale, in real fractured cores, I use the CAT-scanner. I can observe the displacements at various time steps, in permeable (e.g. sandstones) and impermeable (e.g. granites) fractured media, determining the paths that the different phases follow. These observations are then compared with the results of the network model as well as with more conventional numerical simulation. 1.4 Dissertation Overview The work is presented in self-contained chapters. Chapter 2 deals with the high resolution measurement and subsequent statistical characterization of fracture aperture. Chapter 3 uses the fracture aperture geostatistics to predict transmissivity and diffusivity of a solute in single-phase flow through a fracture, which is then tested experimentally. We also observe the flow of a tracer inside the fracture using the CAT-scanner, and relate the observations to numerical modeling results. Chapter 4 presents the theory behind the flow characteristics at the pore scale as well as the micromodel observations of two- and three-phase flow. In Chapter 5, twophase flow in fractured and unfractured porous media is presented, comparing CATscanned observations of various two-phase flow combinations (imbibition, drainage and water flooding) against numerical modeling results. Chapter 6 presents three-phase flow9 in fractures, comparing numerical results against CAT-scanner observations. Finally, Chapter 7 considers the engineering relevance of these studies. 1.5 References Atkinson, B. K., 1989: Fracture Mechanics of Rock, Academic Press, New York, pp. 548 Abdul, A. S., T. L. Gibson, C. C. Ang, J. C. Smith and R. E. Sobczynski, 1992: Pilot test of in situ surfactant washing of polychlorinated biphenyls and oils from a contaminated site, Ground Water, 30:2, 219-231 Abriola, L.,: 1989: Modeling multiphase migration of organic chemicals in groundwater systems – A review and assessment, Environmental Health Perspectives, 83, 117-143 Bai, M., D. Elsworth, J-C. Roegiers, 1993: Multiporosity/multipermeability approach to the simulation of naturally fractured reservoirs, Water Resources Research, 29:6, 1621-1633 Fenwick, D. H. and M. J. Blunt: 1996, Three Dimensional Modeling of Three Phase Imbibition and Drainage, Advances in Water Resources, (in press) Gelhar, L. W., 1986: Stochastic subsurface hydrology: From theory to applications., Water Resources Res., 22(9), 1355-1455. Gierke, J. S., N. J. Hutzler and J. C. Crittenden, Modeling the movement of volatile organic chemicals in columns of unsaturated soil, Water Resources Research, 26:7, 1529-1547 Heard, H. C., I. Y. Borg, N. L. Carter and C. B. Raleigh, 1972: Flow and fracture of rocks, Geophysical Monograph 16, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D. C. Hsieh, P. A., S. P. Neuman, G. K. Stiles and E. S. Simpson, 1985: Field determination of the threedimensional hydraulic conductivity of anisotropic media: 2. Methodology and application to fracture rocks, Water Resources Research, 21:11, 1667-1676 Hsieh, P. A., S. P. Neuman and E. S. Simpson, 1983: Pressure testing of fractured rocks- A methodology employing three-dimensional cross-hole tests, Report NUREG/CR-3213 RW, Dept. of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 IAEA, 1995: The principles of radioactive waste management, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna Johns, R. A. and P. V. Roberts, 1991: A solute transport model for channelized flow in a fracture. Water Resources Res. 27(8): 1797-1808. Kueper, B. H. and D. B. McWhorter, 1991: The behavior of dense, nonaqueous phase liquids in fractured clay and rock, Ground Water, 29:5, 716-728 Long, J. C. S., 1985: Verification and characterization of continuum behavior of fractured rock at AECL Underground Research Laboratory, Report BMI/OCRD-17, LBL-14975, Batelle Memorial Institute, Ohio McKay, L. D., J. A. Cherry and R. W. Gillham, 1993: Field experiments in a fractured clay till, 1. Hydraulic conductivity and fracture aperture, Water Resources Research, 29:4, 1149-1162 Mercer, J. W. and R. M. Cohen, 1990: A review of immiscible fluids in the subsurface: properties, models, characterization and remediation, J. of Contaminant Hydrology, 6, 107-163 Miller, C. T., M. M. Poirier-McNeill and A. S. Mayer, 1990: Dissolution of trapped nonaqueous phase liquids: mass transfer characteristics, Water Resources Research, 26:11, 2783-2796 Mutch, R. D. and J. I. Scott, 1994: Problems with the Remediation of Diffusion-Limited Fractured Rock Systems. Hazardous Waste Site Soil Remediation: Theory and Application of Innovative Technologies. New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc. National Research Council, 1994: Alternatives for ground water cleanup, National Academy Press, Washington, D. C. National Research Council, 1996: Rock Fracture and Fracture Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications, Committee on Fracture Characterization and Fluid Flow, National Academy Press, Washington, D. C. (in press). Parker, J. C. and R. J. Lenhard, 1987: A model for hysteretic constitutive relations governing multiphase flow: 1. Saturation-pressure relations, Water Resources Research, 23:12, 2187-219610 Parker, J. C. and R. J. Lenhard, 1990: Determining three-phase permeability-saturation-pressure relations from two-phase system measurements, J. Pet. Sci. and Eng., 4, 57-65 Parker, B. L., R. W. Gillham and J. A. Cherry, 1994: Diffusive disappearance of immiscible-phase organic liquids in fractured geologic media, Ground Water, 32:5, 805-820 Powers, S. E., C. O. Loureiro, L. M. Abriola and W. J. Weber, Jr., 1991: Theoretical study of the significance of nonequilibrium dissolution of nonaqueous phase liquids in subsurface systems, Water Resources Research, 27:4, 463-477 Pruess, K. and Y. W. Tsang, 1990: On two-phase relative permeability and capillary pressure of roughwalled rock fractures, Water Resources Research, 26:9, 1915-1926 Reitsma, S. and B. H. Kueper, 1994: Laboratory measurement of capillary pressure-saturation relationships in a rock fracture, Water Resources Research, 30:4, 865-878 Savage, D., 1995: The scientific and regulatory basis for the geological disposal of radioactive waste, John Wiley, New York Schuring, J. R., P. C. Chan and T. M. Boland, 1995: Using pneumatic fracturing for in-situ remediation of contaminated sites, Remediation, 5:2, 77-90 Norman R. Warpinski, 1991: Hydraulic fracturing in tight, fissured media, SPE 20154, J. Petroleum Technology, 43:2, 146-209 Warren , J. E. and P. J. Root, 1963: The behavior of naturally fractured reservoirs, Soc. Pet. Eng. J., 3, 245-255 Wilkins, M. D., L. M. Abriola and K. D. Pennell, 1995: An experimental investigation of rate-limited nonaqueous phase liquid volatilization in unsaturated porous media: Steady state mass transfer, Water Resources Research, 31:9, 2159-2172 Zimmerman, R. W., G. Chen, T. Hadgu and G S. Bodvarsson, 1993: A numerical dual-porosity model with semianalytical treatment of fracture/matrix flow, Water Resources Research, 29:7, 2127-2137

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